Religious Studies: British Philosophy on Creation, Evil and Science

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Summary:

Explore British philosophy on creation, evil, and science to understand key religious and scientific perspectives shaping ethical and existential questions today.

Introduction

Religious Studies Philosophy is an area of thought steeped in rich tradition and encompassing profound questions about existence, morality, and our place within the cosmos. In a British context, it brings together Christian beliefs that have shaped our culture for centuries, the philosophical analysis that British thinkers like David Hume and Bertrand Russell advanced, and the rigorously empirical methods of science. At the heart of Religious Studies Philosophy lies the tension and dialogue between explanations rooted in faith and those grounded in reason and evidence. This essay seeks to interrogate major questions within this field: the origins of the universe and life, our obligations toward the natural world, the perplexing problem of evil, and the interplay between religious and scientific worldviews. Exploring these topics allows us not only to understand our heritage but also to grapple with contemporary issues, such as environmental crisis and ethical decision-making, that demand both moral and rational clarity.

Creation: Narratives, Science, and Meaning

Christian Creation Accounts

Within Christian tradition, the creation of the world is recounted in the opening chapters of Genesis. These narratives remain foundational for many in the UK, shaping our literature, values, and collective imagination. Genesis chapter 1 presents a methodical act of creation: over six days, God brings forth light, separates the heavens and the earth, populates the land and seas, eventually creating humans “in his own image” before taking a day to rest. Genesis chapter 2 offers a more intimate portrayal, focusing on the formation of Adam from the earth itself, followed by the establishment of Eden, the companionship of animals, and finally the creation of Eve from Adam’s rib.

Interpretations of these stories vary widely. Some groups, such as literalist creationists, uphold these events as direct historical truth. However, many contemporary Christians accept a more metaphorical or allegorical understanding, seeing these accounts as conveying spiritual truths about order, dependence on God, and the dignity of humanity rather than scientific detail. This distinction between literal and symbolic can be found in Church of England teaching and is echoed by writers like C. S. Lewis, who argued that myth and narrative are means by which deeper truths become accessible.

Scientific Theories of Origins

Contrasting religious narratives, science provides a different perspective on origins, prioritising empirical observation and testable hypotheses. The Big Bang theory, now universally accepted within the scientific community, proposes that approximately 13.8 billion years ago, the universe expanded from a singularity—an event supported by cosmic background radiation and the observed redshift of galaxies. As for the origins of life itself, the theory of abiogenesis suggests that, in Earth’s primordial conditions, simple molecules gradually gave rise to living organisms.

Perhaps the most consequential scientific challenge to literal readings of Genesis arrived with Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection, as published in 1859’s *On the Origin of Species*. Darwin, an Englishman whose work was both celebrated and controversial in Victorian society, demonstrated through the study of finches in the Galapagos Islands and the fossil record that life evolved through gradual processes over vast stretches of time. The evidence for evolution has since become overwhelming, from genetic sequencing to observable adaptation in species such as the peppered moth.

Dialogue, Contradiction, and Reconciliation

The confrontation between Biblical creation and scientific cosmology has often been portrayed as a conflict. Religion, it is argued, seeks to answer ‘why’—why is there something rather than nothing, why do we exist, what is our purpose? Science, on the other hand, seeks to answer ‘how’—how did the universe begin, how did life emerge and diversify? Philosopher Mary Midgley, herself a prominent British thinker, emphasised that these are different sorts of questions, both necessary for a well-rounded understanding.

Some theologians—such as John Polkinghorne, a physicist and Anglican priest—have posited that evolution and the Big Bang are not at odds with faith, but rather offer insight into the mechanisms through which creation unfolds. In this way, science and religion are not adversaries but partners, with scripture speaking in the language of metaphor and purpose, and science in the language of process and causation.

Human Stewardship and Responsibility

Biblical Principles of Stewardship

Within both creation accounts, there is an insistence upon a unique human status. The phrase “imago Dei”, meaning made in the image of God, endows humans with both dignity and responsibility. In Genesis 1:28, humanity is given ‘dominion’ over the animals and the earth, a verse historically used to justify both exploitation and care of creation. However, Genesis 2 articulates a different view: Adam is placed in the garden “to till it and keep it”, suggesting guardianship and partnership rather than ownership.

This idea of stewardship has deep roots in British Christianity. Prominent theologians such as William Temple, former Archbishop of Canterbury, foregrounded the ethical demands of creation care, and these values have influenced charities such as Christian Aid and the Christian Ecology Link. Such organisations interpret stewardship as requiring protection of the vulnerable—be they human or animal—and the responsible, sustainable management of resources.

Philosophical and Ethical Reflections

Philosophically, stewardship raises questions regarding our obligations to the natural world. Are we to value nature only for its usefulness to us, or does it possess intrinsic worth apart from human interests? Thinkers like Peter Singer have argued from utilitarian grounds for the consideration of animal suffering, while eco-philosophers like James Lovelock (with his Gaia hypothesis) have suggested the interdependence of all life.

Within the UK, environmental ethics is increasingly informed by religious perspectives which see ecology not just as a scientific concern, but as a moral imperative. The COP26 climate summit in Glasgow, for example, saw faith leaders join scientists in calls for urgent action against climate change, highlighting the role of stewardship-based ethics in motivating communal responsibility.

Practical Christian Environmentalism

Christian response to today’s ecological crises takes many forms. The Christian Ecology Link, for instance, campaigns for lifestyle changes such as reducing carbon emissions and supporting local sustainable farming. The Bishop’s Lent Appeal in some dioceses raises funds for clean water projects abroad, linking stewardship to social justice. Lessons drawn from parables like the Good Samaritan are re-applied to notions of ‘neighbour’—extending compassion and care to future generations and to non-human creation.

Human Uniqueness and Animal Ethics

Religious Grounds for Human Superiority

The belief that humans possess a special status in creation is reinforced not only by ‘imago Dei’ but also by scriptural stories such as Noah and the Ark, where humans are tasked with the preservation of animal life. Christian thought generally attributes to humans rationality, the capacity for moral choices, and the possession of immortal souls—attributes not usually extended to animals.

Scientific and Ethical Counterarguments

Nevertheless, advances in animal ethology—from primate communication studies at Cambridge to the work of Jane Goodall with chimpanzees—have shown that self-awareness, empathy, and complex social organisation are present in several animal species. This has catalysed debates in the UK Parliament regarding animal sentience and rights, leading to legal protections for animal welfare that go beyond mere prevention of cruelty.

Philosophers such as Mary Warnock have argued for a gradualist approach, recognising a moral continuum rather than an unbridgeable gulf between humans and animals. If animals suffer, what does stewardship demand? Should practices such as factory farming or animal testing be morally permissible? Such dilemmas remain vibrant within ethical discourse.

Rethinking Relationships: From Utility to Respect

In British society, public attitudes have shifted markedly—from acceptance of fox hunting as a rural tradition, to widespread criticism and eventual legislative ban. Philosophically, our relationship with animals is increasingly understood not solely in terms of dominance, but of ecological interdependence and mutual respect.

The Problem of Evil

Defining Evil: Moral and Natural

The question of why evil exists—whether in the form of deliberate human harm (moral evil) or natural disasters such as tsunamis (natural evil)—is central within religious philosophy. Christianity speaks of the Fall, Adam and Eve’s disobedience, introducing sin into an originally good world. Some traditions invoke the agency of Satan in prompting evil acts.

Theodicy: Justifying God in a Suffering World

From a philosophical perspective, theodicy seeks to reconcile belief in an all-powerful, wholly good God with the existence of evil. Augustine of Hippo, an influential figure for Anglican and Catholic thought alike, theorised that evil is not a substance but a privation—a lack or corruption of the good. The ‘free will defence’ claims that God values autonomous creatures, which makes possible the misuse of freedom.

Yet, questions persist—why should innocent people, such as children, suffer through no fault of their own? Does the presence of suffering negate the possibility of a loving deity, or is it compatible with a world in which humans grow through facing challenges? British philosopher Antony Flew pressed hard on these points, stimulating ongoing debate.

Living with Evil

Religious approaches to evil range from seeking forgiveness and repentance (as in the practice of confession) to social action inspired by scripture—feeding the hungry, comforting the afflicted. For many believers, the struggle with evil is integral to spiritual growth, as illustrated in the story of Job, long reflected upon in English sermons and literature.

Religion, Science, and the Environment

Environmental Crisis and the British Context

The reality of climate change and ecological degradation is acutely felt in the UK, from London’s air pollution alerts to flooding in Yorkshire. Scientific reports document the effects of emissions (carbon dioxide, methane, and other pollutants), plastic contamination of coastal waters, habitat loss, and declining biodiversity.

Faith-Inspired Environmental Action

Christian teaching, and increasingly interfaith dialogue in the UK, identifies the earth as not merely a resource, but sacred creation. The Assisi Declarations brought together Christian, Muslim, Jewish, Buddhist, and Hindu leaders to affirm ecological responsibility as a spiritual imperative. Within schools and parishes, eco-groups engage in practical projects—from tree planting to lobbying for fair trade policies—demonstrating faith as a catalyst for action.

Models of Global and Local Leadership

Leaders like Chico Mendes, though Brazilian, have inspired UK activists through non-violent resistance to deforestation, while British figures like Sir David Attenborough (though not religious himself) have used their prominence to advocate for the planet. Collaboration across faiths is increasingly viewed as necessary for facing global environmental challenges, uniting diverse traditions in common cause.

Conclusion

The philosophy of Religious Studies, rooted in the British educational tradition, offers a rich field for examining how ancient beliefs adapt to modern questions. Exploring creation, stewardship, human-animal relations, and the problem of evil gives us a nuanced lens through which to understand both our spiritual and scientific heritage. Far from being mutually exclusive, religion and science can be woven together in dialogue, each illuminating different facets of existence. As we confront 21st-century issues such as climate change and bioethics, a thoughtful, reflective, and open-minded approach—one willing to learn from both revelation and reason—is vital. This calls each of us, regardless of our personal beliefs, to examine our roles as stewards of the earth and as seekers of truth.

Example questions

The answers have been prepared by our teacher

What is British philosophy on creation according to religious studies?

British philosophy on creation discusses both Christian creation narratives from Genesis and scientific explanations like the Big Bang and evolution, emphasizing the dialogue between faith and reason.

How do British philosophers explain the problem of evil in religious studies?

British philosophers analyze the problem of evil by examining how traditional Christian beliefs reconcile the existence of suffering with an all-powerful, benevolent God.

What role does science play in British philosophy on creation and evil?

Science provides empirical theories such as the Big Bang and evolution, challenging literal interpretations of Genesis and encouraging philosophical debate about origins and morality.

How does British religious studies address the conflict between science and creation?

British religious studies recognizes both the potential for conflict and options for reconciliation, viewing religious and scientific explanations as addressing different questions about existence.

Who are key British philosophers in debates about creation, evil, and science?

Key British philosophers include David Hume, Bertrand Russell, and Mary Midgley, each contributing influential perspectives on creation, evil, and the dialogue between science and religion.

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