Cognitive Psychology: 16‑Mark Essay Plan and Key Points
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Added: 17.01.2026 at 6:42
Summary:
Master Cognitive Psychology 16-mark essay plan and key points: learn core assumptions, key models, strengths, limitations and exam-ready examples for UK exams.
Cognitive Approach in Psychology
The cognitive approach in psychology represents a pivotal movement in the understanding of human behaviour, focusing on how internal mental processes shape our responses to the world. Unlike earlier traditions that examined only the observable, such as behaviourism, the cognitive perspective treats the mind as an information-processing system—much like a computer—shedding light on how we perceive, remember, decide, and problem-solve. This essay will explore the core assumptions of the cognitive approach, review central theoretical models and empirical research, and critically discuss its contributions and limitations, drawing on studies and examples that resonate within the context of the United Kingdom’s academic discourse.Core Assumptions and Fundamental Concepts (AO1)
At its heart, the cognitive approach proposes that behaviour can only be fully explained by considering the internal processes that precede an overt response. These processes—including attention, perception, memory, language, and problem-solving—are not directly observable but are inferred from behaviour. Thus, psychologists study how individuals encode, transform, store, and retrieve information, positing that mental representations guide responses to stimuli.The information-processing model offers a central analogy: much like a computer that receives inputs, processes data, and produces outputs, the human mind manages information through successive stages. This conceptualisation forms the backbone of many classic experiments and helps organise research into cognition.
A further foundational concept is the idea of schemas—mental frameworks that organise and interpret new information, drawing on established knowledge and experiences. Schemas play a decisive role in guiding perception and memory, especially when dealing with ambiguous or partial data; for example, when recalling events, individuals might 'fill in' missing details in ways consistent with their expectations.
Cognitive psychology is buttressed by scientific methods, employing controlled laboratory experiments, reaction-time tasks, recall and recognition measures, and more recently, neuroimaging techniques. Such rigour enables researchers to infer structured, generalisable conclusions about the processes underlying behaviour.
Central Models and Supporting Empirical Evidence (AO1)
Among the most influential models is the multi-store model of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968), which proposes a three-stage flow: from the sensory register, through short-term memory, and into long-term memory, with information transferred via rehearsal. Classic studies supporting this model include experiments on recall, which demonstrate that short-term and long-term memory differ in both capacity (Miller’s 'magic number seven') and duration (Peterson & Peterson’s timed recall tasks).A more nuanced depiction can be found in Baddeley and Hitch’s working memory model. This theory divides short-term memory into specialised components: the phonological loop for verbal information, the visuospatial sketchpad for visual and spatial tasks, and the central executive for attentional control. Experimental findings support this division; for instance, dual-task studies show that participants can perform a visual and verbal task simultaneously with little interference, suggesting separate processing systems.
Schema theory and the work of Bartlett (1932) on reconstructive memory provide another influential strand. Bartlett’s study using "The War of the Ghosts" illustrated how British participants recalled unfamiliar stories in ways that conformed to their cultural expectations, often reshaping details—a phenomenon with practical implications for the reliability of eyewitness testimony, as later developed by Loftus and Palmer (1974).
Finally, the cognitive approach has drawn on cognitive neuroscience, with neuroimaging and case studies (for example, the famous amnesiac Clive Wearing) supporting distinctions between types of memory (such as episodic and procedural).
Scientific Rigor and Predictive Value (AO2)
A considerable strength of the cognitive approach lies in its scientific methods. The reliance on controlled laboratory experiments enables precise manipulation of variables and generation of replicable results. For example, Baddeley’s comprehensive series of working memory experiments systematically clarified the functions of different memory components, leading to models that are testable and open to refinement.Moreover, computer modelling has been employed to simulate human cognitive processes, providing precise theoretical predictions that can be empirically tested. While these rigours enhance reliability, some critics caution that a gap remains between laboratory measures and the mental constructs inferred from them. Nevertheless, the replicability and predictive power afforded by cognitive experiments remain a significant asset.
Practical Applications and Societal Impact (AO2)
The cognitive approach is not merely theoretical; it has produced far-reaching applications across education, clinical practice, and legal settings. In the clinical field, cognitive principles underlie cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), a treatment with strong empirical support for conditions like depression and anxiety (see NICE guidelines). CBT focuses on identifying and restructuring maladaptive thought patterns, generating measurable improvements in many NHS mental health programmes.Educationally, knowledge of cognitive mechanisms has informed strategies to improve learning and memory—such as the use of spaced rehearsal and retrieval practice, advocated in the UK’s classrooms to maximise exam performance.
Cognitive research has also had an important impact on policing and the justice system. Insights from studies of eyewitness memory have prompted the development of the cognitive interview technique, helping the police obtain more reliable testimony by aligning questioning with natural cognitive processes. Still, these interventions’ effectiveness can vary with individual differences and the contexts in which they are applied.
Limitations: Inferences and Ecological Validity (AO2)
Despite its strengths, the cognitive approach is not without criticisms. Many experiments use artificial tasks—like memorising word lists or identifying shapes on screens—that do not fully capture the complexity of day-to-day cognition. This casts doubt on the ecological validity of some findings. For instance, recall in a laboratory setting might not map neatly onto memory for real-world, emotionally charged experiences, as found in studies of flashbulb memories or trauma.Neuroimaging and field-based studies are beginning to bridge this gap, offering converging lines of evidence, but such methods can introduce other issues, including high costs and difficulties establishing causality.
Limitations: Reductionism and Neglect of Emotion or Social Factors (AO2)
The cognitive approach’s tendency towards mechanistic explanations—reducing thought to a sequence of information-processing steps—means it can underplay the roles of emotion, motivation, and social context. For example, people’s memories are powerfully influenced by emotional states, as demonstrated by studies on emotion-enhanced memory recall (e.g., research following major British events). Similarly, social influences (group norms or stereotypes) can shape reasoning in ways not easily captured by standard cognitive models.Recent developments, such as social cognition and cognitive neuroscience, highlight ongoing efforts to integrate affective and social dimensions, suggesting a maturing field that increasingly recognises its earlier limitations.
Alternative Approaches and Theoretical Integration (AO2)
Some phenomena are more effectively explained by other approaches, or by integrating perspectives. Biological case studies, like the dissociations between memory types observed in patients such as Clive Wearing, reveal the importance of underlying neural mechanisms—a compliment to, rather than a replacement for, cognitive models. The behaviourist legacy also persists, reminding us that learning histories and environmental contingencies shape behaviour, sometimes in ways that cognitive accounts alone cannot fully capture.Today, cognitive psychology frequently collaborates with neurobiology, developmental studies, and computational approaches. This pluralism enhances its explanatory power, especially at the intersection of micro-level cognitive process and broader contextual influences.
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