Exploring Key Psychological Approaches and Their Impact on Behaviour
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Added: 21.02.2026 at 5:31
Summary:
Discover key psychological approaches and their impact on behaviour to enhance your understanding of human thought and actions in secondary school essays.
Approaches in Psychology
Psychology, as a scientific discipline, is devoted to the systematic study of the mind, brain and behaviour. Unlike its philosophical predecessors, psychology blends empirical research with theoretical analysis to unravel the intricate mechanisms underlying thought and action. As the field has evolved, a diverse array of approaches has emerged – each offering unique, sometimes competing, perspectives on what drives human behaviour. Understanding these schools of thought is crucial, not only for appreciating the richness of psychological enquiry but also for recognising the strengths and limitations inherent in scientific attempts to decipher the complexities of human minds. This essay explores the principal psychological approaches, tracing their origins, examining their core assumptions, and critically evaluating their roles in shaping modern psychology.
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I. Historical Foundations of Psychological Thought
The roots of psychology reach back to ancient and Enlightenment philosophy, where figures such as René Descartes and John Locke debated the origins of human experience. Descartes’ notion of “dualism” suggested a separation between mind and body, whilst British empiricists emphasised the role of sensory input. Gall’s phrenology, though discredited, reflected early attempts to link mental faculties to brain structures.The transition to modern psychology is best symbolised by Wilhelm Wundt, who opened the world’s first experimental psychology laboratory in Leipzig in 1879. Wundt employed *introspection*, inviting trained observers to self-report the contents of their consciousness in response to stimuli. While introspection provided initial insights, its reliance on subjective self-report rendered results difficult to reproduce, limiting its scientific value.
Recognising these limitations, psychologists increasingly sought objective, measurable methods. This evolution laid the groundwork for more rigorously empirical approaches, moving the field decisively away from untestable speculation towards observable data—a hallmark that continues to define reputable psychological research today.
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II. The Behaviourist Approach
Emerging in the early 20th century, behaviourism revolutionised psychology by insisting that only observable behaviour constitutes a legitimate subject for scientific study. John Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Ivan Pavlov spearheaded the movement, rejecting the study of internal mental states in favour of empirical methods and controlled laboratory experiments.Classical conditioning, as demonstrated by Pavlov, involves the formation of associations between stimuli. In Pavlov’s famous experiment, dogs were trained to salivate at the sound of a bell previously paired with food. Here, the unconditioned stimulus (food) automatically elicited the unconditioned response (salivation), while, after repeated pairings, the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone triggered salivation (conditioned response).
Further expanding the behavioural paradigm, Skinner introduced operant conditioning—where behaviour is shaped by its consequences. Using devices such as the ‘Skinner Box’, he showed how rats and pigeons rapidly acquired new behaviours through reinforcement (both positive and negative), as well as punishment. For example, a pigeon might learn to peck a lever to receive food, illustrating the concept of behavioural shaping and schedules of reinforcement.
Behaviourist principles found practical application in British classrooms through behaviour modification, as well as in institutional settings like psychiatric hospitals or prisons, often employing token economies. Shows like ‘Supernanny’ popularised behavioural techniques in child-rearing. However, critics highlight behaviourism’s reductionism—oversimplifying complex human behaviour to stimulus-response units and neglecting mental processes. While behaviourism boasts high scientific rigour and replicability, ethical concerns regarding animal research and its deterministic philosophy remain.
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III. Social Learning Theory (SLT)
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (SLT) built upon behaviourist foundations yet crucially incorporated cognitive processes. SLT proposes that people learn not just through direct experience, but also by observing others—a process known as modelling. Such observational learning is evident in the nuanced imitation of behaviours displayed by role models (parents, teachers, peers, or celebrities). Whether a behaviour is copied depends on factors such as the observer’s identification with the model and the perceived rewards or punishments observed (vicarious reinforcement).At the heart of SLT are four mediational processes: attention (noticing behaviour), retention (remembering it), reproduction (ability to perform it), and motivation (desire to imitate). Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments, conducted in the early 1960s, dramatically illustrated these principles—children exposed to aggressive adult models were more likely to replicate aggressive actions, especially when the model was rewarded.
British research has further explored SLT by examining the influence of media violence on young audiences, highlighting the dynamic interplay between individual, cultural, and environmental factors. SLT’s strength lies in bridging the gap between behaviourism and cognitive psychology, offering nuanced explanations for real-world phenomena. Nonetheless, while acknowledging cognitive mediation, SLT has been critiqued for its difficulty in isolating such processes and for underestimating biological predispositions. Methodological limitations, including reliance on laboratory studies, have also been noted.
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IV. The Cognitive Approach
The cognitive approach marks a return to the study of internal mental processes—perception, memory, problem-solving, and language—previously neglected by behaviourists. British psychologists such as Alan Baddeley contributed influential research on memory systems. Cognitive psychologists employ scientific methods to infer mental operations, often using computers as analogies for how the human mind processes information.The information processing model conceptualises cognition as a sequence of stages (input, storage, retrieval). Essential to this view is the concept of schemas—internal frameworks shaped by experience that guide perception and interpretation, at times leading to distortions or biases. Models, both theoretical and computer-based, are pivotal in simulating and understanding mental processes.
This approach underpins developments such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), extensively used within the NHS to treat depression, anxiety, and other disorders. The intersection of cognition and neuroscience—cognitive neuroscience—has grown rapidly with advances in brain imaging technologies.
Despite its scientific strengths, including precision and control, the cognitive approach faces limitations. Laboratory experiments, while rigorous, often lack ecological validity; mental processes may be oversimplified, and emotional or social dimensions can be neglected. Critics argue that findings may not always generalise to real-life situations.
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V. The Biological Approach
The biological (or physiological) approach attributes behaviour to genetic, neurochemical and anatomical factors. British research in genetics, brain imaging, and psychopharmacology has contributed extensively to this field. Biological psychologists investigate issues such as the heritability of mental health disorders via twin and adoption studies, the role of neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin in depression), and brain structure abnormalities in conditions like schizophrenia.Evolutionary psychology, drawing on principles posed by Charles Darwin, explains behaviours such as attachment (Bowlby) and aggression as adaptive responses shaped over time.
The biological approach’s strengths are clear: robust scientific methodology, technological advances, and direct application to medical treatments—antidepressants for depression or antipsychotic drugs for schizophrenia, for example. Yet, its reductionist focus can neglect the personal and social context of behaviour, and genetics-based explanations raise ethical issues (such as in prenatal screening). The nature/nurture debate remains central, with most psychologists now recognising complex gene-environment interactions.
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VI. The Psychodynamic Approach
Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic approach stands apart for its focus on unconscious motives, internal conflict, and the formative power of early childhood. Freud posited a personality structure comprising the id (primitive drives), ego (rational mediator) and superego (moral standards), and proposed controversial psychosexual stages of development.Defence mechanisms—such as repression, projection, and displacement—are said to protect the ego from anxiety. Freud’s methods included free association, dream interpretation, and the analysis of parapraxes (“Freudian slips”) to access the unconscious.
Although psychoanalysis influenced British writers such as D.H. Lawrence and contributed to concepts in child psychiatry and personality development, it is frequently criticised. Its emphasis on sexuality and childhood can seem dated, many constructs are not scientifically testable, and empirical support is sparse. Nonetheless, the psychodynamic legacy persists in talk therapies and has impacted literary criticism, art, and cultural discourse.
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VII. The Humanistic Approach
In post-war Britain, the humanistic movement emerged largely through the influence of figures like Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, offering a positive, optimistic alternative to the deterministic or pessimistic tones of other approaches. Central is the belief in free will, individual potential, and the importance of conscious experience.Maslow’s hierarchy of needs posits that people are motivated to progress through layers of needs towards self-actualisation—a concept influential in British educational and occupational psychology. Rogers’ person-centred approach, embraced in counselling and education, advocates for unconditional positive regard, empathy and congruence between self-image and experience.
Whilst the humanistic approach is celebrated for its holistic, client-centred methods and promotion of well-being, critics highlight its lack of empirical rigour and potential cultural bias—its values may resonate less in collectivist societies. Nonetheless, its impact on counselling, particularly in the UK, remains profound.
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VIII. Comparative Analysis of Approaches
Comparing these approaches, marked contrasts emerge. Behaviourism and the biological approach prioritise objectivity and scientific control, often employing laboratory experiments and, in the latter case, technological tools. Humanistic and psychodynamic perspectives emphasise unique, subjective experiences or the hidden depths of the unconscious. Determinism pervades behaviourist, psychodynamic and biological schools, whilst humanistic psychology stands for free will. Reductionism—explaining behaviour in terms of simple elements—contrasts with holistic or integrative perspectives, now increasingly common.In applied settings, behaviourist principles inform classroom management, biological insights guide psychiatric interventions, cognitive approaches underpin therapy and educational strategies, and the humanistic and psychodynamic schools continue to shape counselling and the arts. British policy increasingly supports integrative or biopsychosocial models, particularly in health care and well-being, reflecting a growing recognition that no single approach offers a comprehensive account.
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Conclusion
In summary, psychology today is a tapestry woven from many threads. The approaches outlined—behaviourist, social learning, cognitive, biological, psychodynamic, and humanistic—have each contributed concepts, methods, and therapies that enrich understanding and improve lives. The diversity of perspectives is not a weakness but a strength, enabling the field to tackle the complex reality of human existence from multiple angles.Looking forward, psychology continues to evolve. Interdisciplinary collaborations—cognitive neuroscience, positive psychology, and personalised therapies—point towards an ever-more integrated science. To appreciate psychology’s full potential, we must critically engage with its diverse and sometimes conflicting traditions, embracing their insights and limitations alike as we strive to comprehend the immense puzzle of the human mind.
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