Major Psychological Approaches Compared: A Critical Overview
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Compare major psychological approaches in a critical overview to learn core assumptions, evidence, strengths, limitations and practical applications for essays
Approaches in Psychology: A Critical Comparison
Psychology as a discipline seeks to understand the manifold complexities of human behaviour and mental processes. At the heart of this quest lies the concept of a “psychological approach”: a coherent framework comprised of assumptions, core concepts, and research methodologies that guides both explanation and intervention. Over the past century and a half, a number of distinct approaches have shaped psychology’s evolution, each offering a particular lens through which to interpret human thought and behaviour. The primary approaches to be critically considered in this essay include the behaviourist, social learning, cognitive, biological, psychodynamic, and humanistic perspectives. Contemporary integrations such as the biopsychosocial model and cognitive neuroscience also warrant attention, as they increasingly influence current research and practice. In what follows, I shall explicate the principal assumptions, evidence, strengths and limitations of each approach, draw comparisons based on methodological and philosophical themes, consider their applications, and ultimately argue that an integrated perspective yields the most comprehensive understanding of the mind.---
The Behaviourist Approach
The behaviourist approach is predicated on the notion that behaviour should be studied empirically, with emphasis placed on observable acts rather than inner mental life. Pioneered by the likes of John B. Watson, and further developed by figures such as Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, behaviourism cast aside introspection and maintained that scientific inquiry in psychology must focus on what can be directly measured.Classical conditioning, as demonstrated by Pavlov’s experiments with dogs, revealed that animals (and, by extension, humans) can learn to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful one, leading to a learned response. Skinner, meanwhile, advanced operant conditioning — the principle that behaviours are shaped by their consequences, particularly reinforcement and punishment. Through meticulously controlled animal studies (for example, Skinner’s rats pressing levers for food rewards), he illustrated how organisms repeat actions that are rewarded and avoid those that are punished.
Behaviourists applied rigorous laboratory methods, favouring quantitative data, which gave the approach substantial scientific credibility. Its principles had wide-reaching applications: systematic desensitisation to treat phobias, behaviour modification in schools and prisons, and token economies for managing psychiatric patients. However, the behaviourist approach has been accused of excessive reductionism: by focusing strictly on stimulus–response chains, it often neglects the role of unobservable mental processes and biological predispositions, and may struggle to explain behaviours that emerge spontaneously without direct reinforcement. Furthermore, critics question the ecological validity and generalisability of animal research to human phenomena (consider Harlow's monkeys as an illustration of the limitations of animal-only paradigms). Nevertheless, behaviourism’s influence is undeniable in British educational and clinical settings, where behavioural interventions remain in use.
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Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory (SLT), introduced most prominently by Albert Bandura, builds on behaviourist concepts while injecting crucial cognitive elements. SLT posits that much of human learning takes place through observation and imitation, not merely direct consequences. Thus, children may acquire new behaviours simply by watching others — as in Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiments, where children exposed to aggressive adult models later reenacted similar aggression, even when they themselves were not directly rewarded or punished.Bandura argued that four cognitive mediating processes — attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation — govern the likelihood of observed behaviours being reproduced, highlighting the internal mental steps between environment and action. SLT accounts for cultural and societal transmission of behaviour, explaining, for example, the rise of knife crime in British urban contexts through peer and media modelling. Educational campaigns that model appropriate behaviours rest on these insights.
However, SLT is sometimes criticised for undervaluing biological reasons why individuals vary in their tendency to imitate, and for relying on controlled experimental conditions that may lack real-world complexity. Nonetheless, by stepping beyond strict behaviourism, SLT paved the way for the transition to cognitive psychology and remains a powerful explanatory tool for phenomena such as media violence and its effects.
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The Cognitive Approach
Cognitive psychology brought the “black box” of the mind into scientific focus, contending that internal mental processes — perception, memory, thought, and language — could be scientifically studied, even if indirectly. Using metaphors such as the mind as an “information processor” or computer, cognitive psychologists constructed theoretical models to infer the structures and functions underlying observable behaviour.Seminal studies underpin this approach: Baddeley and Hitch’s working memory model reconceptualised short-term memory as a dynamic system with multiple components, reshaping revision techniques in British pre-university education; Bartlett’s work on reconstructive memory revealed the effect of cultural schemas on recall, as shown in his “War of the Ghosts” study; and work by Elizabeth Loftus, examining the malleability of eyewitness testimony (e.g., the impact of leading questions), has had a profound impact on UK legal procedures.
The cognitive approach employs controlled laboratory experiments, cognitive tasks, and, increasingly, neuroimaging techniques (like fMRI and PET scans) to elucidate correlations between mental processes and neural activity. Cognitive psychology’s strengths lie in its empirical basis, explanatory scope, and practical applications — notably the development of cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) and improvements to police interview protocols for witnesses. Its main criticisms include occasional over-reliance on artificial laboratory settings, the challenge of inferring mental processes from behaviour, and the neglect of emotional, social, and biological influences unless integrated.
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The Biological Approach
The biological approach seeks answers to psychological questions in the body’s machinery: the brain, nervous system, genes, hormones, and neurochemicals. It asserts that all thoughts, feelings and behaviours have a physical basis and thus can be understood through studying physiology.Evidence comes from twin and family studies (such as those by Gottesman and Shields) which estimate the heritability of traits like schizophrenia; neuropsychological investigations into brain injuries (for instance, cases like HM, whose amnesia uncovered facets of memory formation); and contemporary neuroimaging, which links cognitive functions to brain regions. Sperry’s split-brain research, though initially US-based, significantly shaped British cognitive neuropsychology and later NHS approaches to epilepsy surgery.
The biological approach offers objective and replicable methods, underpinning the medical model of mental health and successes in psychopharmacology (e.g., antidepressants for major depressive disorder) and neurosurgery. Its main pitfalls are reductionism (overlooking social and psychological factors), ethical concerns in experimentation, and the intricate interplay between biology and environment — often ignored in solely biomedical accounts.
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The Psychodynamic Approach
Originating from the clinical work of Sigmund Freud, the psychodynamic approach emphasises unconscious motives and childhood experiences as determinants of personality and behaviour. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory posited the conflict between the id, ego, and superego as central, alongside defence mechanisms that shield against psychological distress.The psychodynamic tradition relies on qualitative methods — case studies (such as Freud’s “Little Hans”), dream analysis, and free association — and has birthed enduring concepts such as repression, denial, and the Oedipus complex. In Britain, this approach heavily influenced post-war psychiatric practice and the rise of talking therapies.
Its strengths are the rich, in-depth exploration it affords of individual experience and its lasting impact on therapeutic practices (including the NHS’s provision of talking therapies and the influence on literary analysis of works like Virginia Woolf’s novels). Critics point to a lack of scientific rigour, as many core concepts are difficult if not impossible to falsify; its sample was often skewed towards repressed, middle-class Viennese clients; and its deterministic underpinnings — that early experiences inexorably shape adult life — appear simplistic in the light of later research.
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The Humanistic Approach
The humanistic perspective, spearheaded by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, insists on the inherent worth and agency of each person. Its emphasis falls on subjective experience, free will, and the innate drive towards self-actualisation. The therapeutic model of unconditional positive regard and empathy developed by Rogers is foundational to British counselling and educational practices.Humanistic research is idiographic: case studies and qualitative techniques that centre on lived experience. Its impact is visible in schools (focus on the whole child and personal growth) and in non-directive therapy widely available on the NHS. Positively, it is credited with fostering a humane, optimistic ethos and empowering personal agency. Yet, the approach is criticised for methodological shortcomings (lack of empirical falsifiability), somewhat vague or culturally exclusive constructs (e.g., individualistic “self-actualisation”) and a lesser impact in mainstream academic research.
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Methodological Comparison and Scientific Status
The various psychological approaches differ considerably in their claim to scientific legitimacy. Behaviourist and biological methods are characterised by controlled experiments, objective measures, and replicability — hallmarks of the natural sciences. Cognitive psychology often seeks the same, using experimental and, increasingly, neuroscientific tools.By contrast, the psychodynamic and humanistic approaches, though rich in qualitative depth, face perennial criticism for their lack of operational verifiability and the challenge of replicating core findings. This methodological pluralism, however, can be viewed as a strength: for example, the integration of cognitive tests with neuroimaging marries the strengths of rigorous measurement with rich conceptual understanding. Such convergences mark the rise of cognitive neuroscience, a field in which British research, as evident at centres like UCL and Cambridge, leads globally.
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Theoretical Themes: Determinism, Reductionism, Nature–Nurture, and Bias
Determinism refers to the extent to which behaviour is shaped by forces beyond the individual’s control. Behaviourist and biological frameworks tend towards determinism (by environment or genes, respectively), while the psychodynamic view proposes that unconscious processes, shaped largely in childhood, are decisive. Humanistic psychology, in contrast, adopts a staunchly free-will stance, positing the individual as the architect of their destiny.Reductionism involves explaining complex phenomena by breaking them down into constituent parts. Here, biological and behaviourist approaches are most reductionist, while cognitive and humanistic perspectives generally opt for holism. The nature–nurture debate finds each approach somewhere along a spectrum: biological explanations stress heredity, behaviourists environment, whilst social learning and cognitive approaches blend both. Cultural and gender biases are evident throughout psychology’s history, from Freud’s patriarchal assumptions to the predominance of Western, educated, industrialised samples in much research, limiting generalisability and ethical applicability.
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Applications and Real-World Utility
Practical implications of these approaches abound. Behaviourist concepts underpin behaviour modification programmes, token economies, and phobia treatments like systematic desensitisation — used to support students with autism in UK schools, for example. Social learning theory guides media policy (e.g., watershed hours for violent content) and anti-bullying initiatives. The cognitive approach has revolutionised therapy (CBT is offered widely on the NHS), and led to reforms in police interviewing techniques, protecting witnesses from suggestion.The biological approach informs psychiatric medication, diagnostic tools, and in severe cases, neurosurgery. Psychodynamic thinking has contributed enduringly to psychotherapy, literary studies, and understanding complex grief. Humanistic concepts have shaped pastoral care, education, social work, and the very ethos of mental health support, though perhaps with less evidence for long-term efficacy relative to cognitive-behavioural techniques. Ethical questions, costs, and accessibility issues must be weighed; behaviourist and cognitive interventions tend to be cost-effective and time-limited, whereas psychoanalysis is time-consuming and expensive.
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Integrative Perspectives and Future Directions
Recent developments appreciate that no single approach suffices. The biopsychosocial model, widely applied in British health sciences, articulates how biological, psychological, and social factors interact in disorders such as depression — where antidepressant medication (biological), cognitive restructuring (psychological), and social support (environmental) are combined to positive effect. Cognitive neuroscience exemplifies this synthesis, exploring how neural processes realise mental functions. The field’s future lies in more interdisciplinary, longitudinal, and culturally inclusive research, aiming to replicate findings and deliver nuanced, effective interventions.---
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