How Upbringing Influences Criminal Behaviour: Insights from Forensic Psychology

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Summary:

Explore how upbringing shapes criminal behaviour through forensic psychology, helping students understand family, social factors, and prevention insights in the UK.

Upbringing and the Path to Criminality: A Forensic Psychological Perspective

The concepts of *upbringing* and *criminality* have long been central to debates about why some individuals embark on a criminal path while others, often in the face of similar adversity, do not. *Upbringing* refers to the social, familial, and environmental conditions in which a person grows and learns the values, norms, and behavioural patterns that shape their later lives. *Criminality* encompasses the propensity or actual engagement in unlawful and antisocial acts. *Forensic psychology* seeks to understand such behaviour through the application of psychological insight within the context of the criminal justice system. In the United Kingdom, with its nuanced social fabric and diverse urban and rural communities, examining the relationship between upbringing and subsequent criminal behaviour provides valuable perspective on prevention, intervention, and broader social policy. This essay will critically examine how family, peer and community environments, as well as key psychological theories and empirical research, contribute to criminal pathways. By synthesising research, theory, and cultural context, we challenge deterministic accounts of crime and propose that, while upbringing matters profoundly, there is capacity for change and rehabilitation at every stage.

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I. The Role of Family Environment in Criminal Behaviour

A. Influence of Family Criminal History

Research rooted in the British context points clearly to the significance of family background on later criminality. For example, data from the Home Office and the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development (Farrington et al.) have indicated that boys whose parents or older siblings have criminal records are at significantly higher risk of offending themselves. This is often referred to as the *intergenerational transmission* of crime. Parental attitudes towards authority, routine law-breaking, or disregard for social norms can impact children both directly—through explicit guidance or threats—and indirectly, by modelling behaviour to be mimicked. British crime fiction, from Dickens’ *Oliver Twist*, in which Fagin’s “family” of pickpockets absorb his criminal values, to contemporary soap operas like *EastEnders*, frequently highlight the subtle shaping of moral codes within the domestic sphere. Moreover, family dynamics such as neglect, parental conflict, or inconsistent discipline can disrupt a young person’s socialisation, undermining their capacity to form stable attachments or internalise rules.

B. Social Learning Theory and Criminal Upbringing

Bandura’s social learning theory, widely taught in UK psychology curricula, proposes that children learn through observation and imitation, especially by watching those they identify as role models. When parents or older siblings engage in criminal or antisocial behaviour—shoplifting, benefit fraud, or more serious offences—children may perceive such behaviours as acceptable solutions to problems, especially if they see those actions go unpunished or even rewarded. However, it is crucial not to assume determinism. Not every child raised in a criminal environment becomes a criminal themselves. The concept of *resilience*—the ability to adapt in the face of adversity—has emerged prominently in UK developmental psychology. Individual traits, supportive relationships outside the immediate family (such as a grandparent or teacher), and access to positive opportunities can insulate against negative influences.

C. Risk and Protective Family Factors

Multiple risk factors have been identified in family settings: single-parent households, economic hardship, inconsistent supervision, parental substance misuse, or domestic violence in the home. These circumstances might seriously compromise a child’s sense of stability and security. Conversely, having at least one attentive, emotionally available caregiver, establishing clear boundaries, and valuing education can serve as protective factors. Initiatives like Sure Start centres, launched in the UK to support parents in disadvantaged areas, have shown some promise in bolstering these protective mechanisms, particularly in the critical early years of life.

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II. The Broader Social Environment: Community, School, and Peer Influence

A. The Impact of Neighbourhood and Socioeconomic Status

The environments in which children grow up extend far beyond the family home. Studies from the Office for National Statistics consistently highlight higher incidence of crime within certain urban areas, often corresponding to deprivation, unemployment, and housing instability. Classic theories such as *social disorganisation*, originally developed in the context of cities like London and Manchester, suggest that weak community bonds and lack of shared values reduce informal social control, fostering an environment in which crime flourishes. In contrast, rural communities, or more affluent urban areas, tend to benefit from greater social cohesion, neighbourly supervision, and access to recreational and educational resources. The influence of one’s neighbourhood can reinforce or counteract family-based risk or protection.

B. Peer Groups and Differential Association Theory

Edwin Sutherland’s *differential association theory* posits that criminality is learned through interaction with peers. British youth culture, from football “firms” to post-war “Teddy Boys”, provides numerous examples in which peer loyalty and group norms override those of wider society. The frequency, duration, and emotional intensity of association with peers who condone or practise illegal behaviour can cultivate similar attitudes in the individual. For instance, involvement in local gangs—an increasing issue in cities such as London, Manchester, and Birmingham—often draws vulnerable young people into patterns of offending. Peer pressure is not merely direct coercion, but a desire to gain acceptance, respect, or status within a group. Many young people who truant, vandalise property, or experiment with drugs cite feeling unable to “let the side down”.

C. The Role of School Environment

Schools stand as pivotal sites for socialisation and early intervention. Positive school experiences—engagement in lessons, supportive staff-student relationships, and opportunities for achievement—can counteract adverse social environments. However, academic failure, persistent truancy and exclusion from school drastically increase risk of later criminality. The process of “labelling” students as troublemakers or “bad” can, as suggested by labelling theory, entrench a deviant identity and reduce access to positive activities or peer groups. British literature and television—such as in *Grange Hill* or *Educating Essex*—often document the complexities and challenges facing schools in areas of high deprivation, where teachers must juggle educational duties with providing emotional and sometimes practical support to pupils.

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III. Developmental Trajectories From Childhood to Adulthood

A. Longitudinal Evidence and Research Methodologies

Understanding how criminal behaviour develops over time relies on longitudinal cohort studies. The UK’s own research, such as the aforementioned Cambridge Study, traces the life courses of hundreds of individuals from childhood to middle age, providing insights into the accumulation (or avoidance) of risk. These studies often utilise interviews, official records, and psychological assessment at multiple time-points, mapping links between early adversity, cumulative social risk factors, and later-life offending.

B. Patterns of Offending Behaviour

The “age-crime curve” is ubiquitous in criminological literature: offending behaviour typically begins in early-to-mid adolescence, peaks during the late teens, and, for many, declines in the mid-20s. A distinction is drawn between *early-onset* offenders who begin offending before puberty—often with more entrenched and varied criminal careers—and *late-onset* offenders who may be responding to situational stressors and desist more readily as life circumstances improve. Persistent, chronic offending tends to align with more severe early family and community risk factors.

C. Influence of Life Events and Transitions

The journey to criminality is rarely smooth or inevitable. Life events such as parental separation, bereavement, or school exclusion may act as catalysts, especially when support is lacking. Conversely, “turning points”—like gaining stable employment, participating in supportive relationships, or becoming a parent—often precipitate desistance from crime. The narrative is not one of destiny but of vulnerability and opportunity.

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IV. Psychological Theories Explaining How Upbringing Leads to Crime

A. Social Learning Theory Revisited

Bandura’s theory not only applies to the domestic setting, but also more broadly, encompassing peer and media influences. Young people may be reinforced for criminal or antisocial behaviour by praise, attention, financial gain, or group status, thereby internalising these behaviours.

B. Differential Association Theory’s Specific Contributions

Sutherland’s principles clarify how criminal attitudes, rationalisations, and techniques are transmitted and maintained. The number and closeness of contacts with criminally inclined peers, versus those upholding the law, tip the balance of influences, shaping likelihood of offending. However, the origins of initial criminal values, and the reason some individuals remain immune, are less well explained by differential association alone.

C. Interactionist Perspectives and Limitations

Sole reliance on social or environmental explanations risks overlooking individual personality, cognitive style, or possible genetic vulnerabilities. Increasingly, British psychological research adopts *interactionist* models, where upbringing (nurture) interacts with temperament (nature), and both are influenced by opportunities and life events. No single factor, however compelling, dictates criminality: rather, it is the convergence of risk factors—with upbringing at the heart—that sets the stage upon which the drama of crime may, or may not, unfold.

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V. Implications for Prevention and Rehabilitation

A. Early Intervention Programmes

Interventions designed to support and educate parents—such as home visiting schemes, family therapy, and parenting classes—can instil more effective discipline, attachment, and emotional competence. UK-based studies of Sure Start and similar programmes indicate moderate success in reducing early behavioural problems and improving family functioning. Schools are also crucial in identifying at-risk children, implementing behaviour support plans, and fostering positive skills and aspirations.

B. Community and Social Policy Measures

Beyond the family, investing in safe, supportive communities—through youth clubs, recreation, mentoring schemes—can divert young people from antisocial peer groups. Government initiatives aiming at improving housing, reducing unemployment, and fostering community pride are likely to have indirect but important effects on crime rates.

C. Targeting Recidivism and Adult Offenders

For those already involved in criminality, rehabilitation must address learned patterns of behaviour and their social underpinnings. Interventions such as cognitive-behavioural therapy, vocational support, and housing assistance, as implemented in UK probation services, increase the likelihood of desistance, reinforcing the principle that change is always possible, regardless of early disadvantage.

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Conclusion

Upbringing plays a critical, though complex, role in the development of criminal behaviour, channelling risk and protection through the interplay of family, peers, schools, and the wider community. No individual is wholly determined by their early experiences; pathways to crime are shaped by, but not bound to, upbringing. Longitudinal and holistic approaches, informed by sound psychological theory and robust empirical evidence, shed light on the importance of early intervention, community cohesion, and rehabilitation. Ultimately, recognising the dynamic potential for change enables both individuals and society to disrupt the cycle of crime, ensuring that the legacies of upbringing need not equate to a destiny of offending, but to hope and transformation.

Frequently Asked Questions about AI Learning

Answers curated by our team of academic experts

How does upbringing influence criminal behaviour according to forensic psychology?

Upbringing shapes values, norms, and behaviours that influence criminality. Family, peer, and community environments impact whether individuals adopt or reject unlawful acts.

What family factors affect criminal behaviour based on forensic psychology?

Family criminal history, parental attitudes, neglect, conflict, and discipline consistency affect the likelihood of criminal behaviour. These factors can increase or decrease risk depending on their nature.

How does social learning theory explain upbringing's influence on criminal behaviour?

Social learning theory states children imitate role models' behaviours; exposure to family crime normalises unlawful actions. Observation and perceived rewards or lack of punishment are key influences.

What are the protective factors in upbringing against criminal behaviour?

Supportive caregivers, clear boundaries, emotional availability, and valuing education help prevent criminality. These protective factors offer stability and positive guidance.

Is criminal behaviour inevitable with a negative upbringing according to forensic psychology?

Criminal behaviour is not inevitable; resilience and positive influences can prevent it. Forensic psychology emphasises potential for change and rehabilitation even in adverse circumstances.